Minimal Music and Additive Method
Minimal music refers to the extreme reduction of the musical content, not to the duration of the piece of music. Some minimalist compositions can last upwards of four hours. (This opera is about two hours long.) “Minimal” music is also a characteristic of Indian, Balinese and West African music. It is also related to the visual arts in that they both incorporate the technique of repetition of similar short cells (or motifs), linked in a continuous, gradually variegated progression and transition of one motif to another related motif. This produces a static yet incessantly moving acoustic texture.

The musical figures or structure are written according to an “additive method.” Instead of longer notes being divided into smaller units—such as a whole note to two half notes, a half note to two quarter notes, etc.—smaller units are brought together which have a structure different from that of the larger units which they finally form. As Glass himself put it, “These larger units or periods are integrated in a cyclical process. Other cycles with different rhythms are added afterwards like in a wheel-work—everything works simultaneously in a continuous transformation.”

Glass structured the music of each scene according to the Baroque chaconne. This is a form in which a harmonic pattern based on a chord progression is repeated throughout the piece with changing rhythms and melodic material above it, making it a kind of variation form. These basic harmonic chord repetitions act as an ostinato (continuous repetition). The Glass trademarks of short melodic cells, whirling rhythmic figures that are repeated countless times yet we can hear elements of lyricism in the melodic line will be found in virtually every section of the opera.

Satyagraha is the second of Glass’s three “Portrait” operas. The first was Einstein on the Beach and featured the famous scientist, Albert Einstein. Satyagraha is about Gandhi, the famous Indian pacifist and a man of politics. The third was Akhnaten, about a 15th century B.C. Egyptian pharaoh who, unusual for his culture, believed in monotheism.

There are two important “groups of three” in this opera. The first of these is the presence of a famous historical figure who presides over or observes in each of the three acts, but does not sing. Glass wanted someone to represent the past, one the present and one the future. In the first act, it is the great Russian writer Leo Tolstoy, whose ideas about spiritual values and communal life influenced Gandhi. The second is Rabindranath Tagore, a Bengali poet who won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1913. He befriended Gandhi upon his return to India from South Africa. It was Tagore who first gave the Gandhi the title “Mahatma” or “Great Soul.” The third historical figure is Martin Luther King, Jr., who used the teachings of Gandhi—passive resistance—in his many acts of civil disobedience.

The second group of three is the progression of scenes in the opera, which moves chronologically through the course of the day. Act I takes place at dawn, mid-morning and late morning. Act II is at noon, afternoon and early evening. Act III, the New Castle March, occurs from sunset to night.

A study of the first scene in Act I gives us an insight into Glass’s compositional techniques of “minimal music” and “additive technique.” The scene is entitled, “The Kuru Field of Justice.” Two armies, led by Duryodhana and Arjuna—two mythological figures—are facing each other. The music starts with a series of four descending chords (F minor, E flat major, D flat major and C major) played as a rising and falling arpeggio by a solo cello in 5/8 time (Ex. #1a). This four-measure cell is repeated. The meter changes to 6/8 and contains the same figure with one added note within the arpeggio (Ex. #1b). This four-measure cell is also repeated. It then changes back to the original 5/8 and then again to the 6/8 before expanding to 7/8 (Ex. #1c) played twice and then 9/8 (Ex. #1d) played four times, making for a basic ten-fold repetition in all.

Above this repetitive bass line Gandhi sings, “I see them ready to right, seeking to please the king’s sinful son by waging war” (Ex. #1e).

The accompaniment then changes to an F minor scale first played in the natural mode and then in the harmonic minor with a raised 7th (Ex. #1f). A flute adds a countermelody following the same chord progression in contrary motion (Ex, #1g).

Soon Prince Arjune joins in with Gandhi at the interval of a third, “My very being is oppressed with compassion’s harmful taint. With mind perplexed concerning right and wrong, I ask you which is the better course” (Ex. #1h).

During this duet, the descending four-chord progressions (Ex. #1a) repeat 18 times. Intensity mounts with internal repetitions of short phrases within the measure. In Ex. #1i the meter is in 12/8 time with note groups of four, three and two eighth notes, with the middle three notes repeating. The meter in this section varies from 12/8 to 8/8 to 9/8. Now Krishna’s voice is added, making for three-part harmony (Ex. #1j). He intones the injunction to stand resolute for the right that duty prescribes. During this trio an electronic keyboard in plays the same four chords (F minor, E flat major, D flat major and C major) as the low strings traverse up and down the scale, alternating chromatic downward runs with F minor ascending scales.

A chorus of two armies—shown to be Indian and European as the lights illuminate them—joins in as the meter, with internal repetitions, expands to 17/8 (Ex. #1k). In addition, external repetitions—repeated sections of four to eight measures—add to the multi-layered build-up. From this choral climax, Gandhi’s voice emerges with the words “Hold pleasure and pain, profit and loss, victory and defeat to be the same, then brace yourself for the fight.” More than 18 minutes of multiple repetitions of the chaconne chord progression have elapsed.

Act I, scene ii is entitled “Tolstoy Farm (1910).” This was the farm that served as headquarters and spiritual training ground for Gandhi’s movement. All families on this farm would live in one place, becoming members of a cooperative commonwealth where residents would be trained to live a new, simple life in harmony. The building of the farm drew everyone into an active involvement with the Satyagraha ideal—a fight on behalf of truth consisting of self-purification and self-reliance.

Once again there is one harmonic motif underlying the entire scene—D minor (second inversion) to G major to A minor. This harmonic progression is introduced by a bass figure in the opening measure, over which there are tremolo string figures outlining the aforementioned three chords (Ex. #2a). This progression neither varies nor ceases throughout the entire 11—minute length of the scene.

In the fifth measure, Gandhi introduces his philosophy: “Between theory and practice, some talk as they were two—making a separation and a difference between them. Yet wise men know that both can be gained in applying oneself whole heartedly to one.” Gandhi’s melodic line, though rhythmically active, spans a range of only two notes, A and G (Ex. #2b).

A flute melody emerges above the tremolo strings. It is a scale in the Phrygian mode—all the white notes on a keyboard from E to E an octave higher (Ex. #2c). This scale will form the basis of the final moments of the opera, sung by Gandhi, but at a much slower tempo.

Soon Miss Schlesen,Gandhi’s secretary, Mrs. Naidoo,an Indian co-worker and Kasturbai, Gandhi’s wife, form a trio over the same repetitive tremolo string motif (Ex. #2d). Mrs. Naidoo and Kasturbai sing together in the same rhythm, but an octave apart, while Miss Schlesen has a more active rhythmic line above the other two voices. The gist of their text is “Such a one is honorable who gives his mortal powers to worthy work not seeking gain. Do the allotted task for which one is fit, for work is more excellent than idleness….”

After another brief interlude of Ex. #2c, Mr. Kallanbach, a European co-worker of Gandhi’s, adds “When the motives and the fruits of a man’s actions are freed from desire, his works are burned clean by wisdom’s fire, the white fire of truth.” Kallanbach’s first measure is a series of four consecutive notes of equal value, but there is a rhythmic syncopation in the second measure (Ex. #2e). Once again the flute interlude returns, as does the trio of the three ladies.

Soon the four voices join together and eventually Gandhi joins in as well, creating a quintet (Ex. #2f). Gandhi’s rhythmic syncopation causes his part to stand out from the others. To further enrich the texture, the bass voice of Parsi Rustomji, an Indian coworker, doubles Kallenbach’s voice an octave below, along with the double bass in the orchestra. The scene concludes as the flute melody repeats its E to E scale as in Ex. #2c, along with the never wavering, constantly repetitious tremolo accompaniment of the three basic chords (Ex. #2a).

Act I, scene iii is called “The Vow (1906).” The title represents the Indian community’s solemn oath to resist the British government’s Black Act, which required Indians to carry registration certificates. This vow was a pledge to resist unto death and marked a turning point for the movement. The key text in this scene is stated by the Indian coworker, Parsi Rustomji: “Whoever gives up a duel because it causes him pain…follows the way of darkness.”

The germinating musical cell is a whirling figure in the high strings and keyboard in 6/8 time with numerous internal and external repetitions (Ex. #3a).

Underneath this figure, Rustomji intones his mantra in a descending scale (Ex. #3b). The chorus responds likewise in unison and later with overlapping canonic entrances (Ex. #3c).

Octave leaps in the vocal descending line by Rustomji and the chorus add a forceful quality of determination to their pledge (Ex. #3d).

Near the end of the scene, a welcome key change gives some variety to the previous harmonic underpinning. Act I concludes with the chorus intoning, “So was the wheel set in motion, and who here fails to match his turning…lives out his life in vain.” The chorus sings full triads with ever-shortening note values—first in half notes (Ex. #3e), then dotted quarter notes (Ex. #3f) then quarter notes (Ex. #3g)—finally expanding to whole notes as the “wheel set in motion” with the obsessive whirling figure representing that wheel.

Act II scene i is called “Confrontation and Rescue (1896).” As can be seen from the year (1896), the opera is not presented in chronological order in terms of the life of Gandhi, a scene of Act I having taken place in 1910 followed by a scene taking place in 1906. The setting is Durban, South Africa where Gandhi returned after a visit to India, having drawn the world’s attention to the plight of his countrymen who had come to South Africa as indentured servants. The British accost him as he makes his way through town. In scene i his life is saved when the wife of the police superintendent happens by and takes him under her protection. This entire scene features a chorus of men and Mrs. Alexander, the police superintendent’s wife. She opens her umbrella for Gandhi’s protection and walks by his side, leading him to safety.

After an introductory chord of an interval of an open fifth, a mob begins a chant, first with laughter then with off-beat mutterings which alternate with the laughter (Ex. #4a). The underpinning harmony is in F minor throughout, with many internal and external repetitions—measures that repeat with indications of x2, x4 or x8 and then whole line repetitions including the internal repetitions all over again.

The meter shifts to 6/2 with the “ha ha” laughter above whirling sixteenth notes in the flutes, clarinets and strings (Ex. #4b). Instrumental arpeggios in the bass line with scale-like figures above repeat 96 times, counting all of the internal and external repetitions. Because of all the repetitions, four pages of music last more than six minutes.

Finally, amid the whirling string figures, Mrs. Alexander emerges from the crowd to save Gandhi (Ex. #4c). A brief excursion to E flat and D flat harmonies gives the listener relief from the incessant F minor harmony of the chorus. This relentless pounding rhythm drives home the obsessive feeling of a surrounding mob.

Mrs. Alexander is musically pitted against the mob with notes on the beat while off-beat intervals of the fifth are sung by the mob (Ex. #4d). A brief dip to E major, within the framework of F minor, also provides a tinge of harmonic variety (Ex. #4e).

Act II, scene ii is called “Indian Opinion (1906).” It depicts the 1906 founding of the movement’s weekly newspaper, Indian Opinion. Every aspect of the newspaper’s production reflected the growth of the Satyagraha principles. The newspaper accepted no advertisement in order to be free of outside influence. The scenery and staging for this scene include a large printing press and the printing and distribution of the newspaper. A fast whirling figure in the flutes, clarinets and violins sets an immediate musical description of the printing press (Ex. #5a).

Kallenbach and Miss Schlesen then sing an antiphonal setting of the newspaper’s mission: “With senses freed, the wise man should act, longing to bring about the welfare and coherence of the world” (Ex. #5b).

Kasturbai, Mrs. Naidoo and Parsi Rustomji turn the duet into a quintet with a pulsating ostinato rhythm over Kallenbach’s bass line and under Miss Schlesen’s high intonations of “Ah.” The orchestral accompaniment—ever whirling and ever repetitious, with ubiquitous internal and external repetitions—continues to permeate the entire musical texture (Ex. #5c).

The music reverts to example #5b and then the quintet ensemble returns. The entire scene alternates between examples 5b and 5c. Gandhi himself silently appears late in the scene, inspecting the activity in the printing press. All exit, leaving the press to run alone with its ever-whirling rhythm (Ex. #5a) during the final three minutes of the scene. An underlying three-measure chaconne figure in the bass line (Ex. #5d) has remained unchanged throughout, leaving the variations to the vocal line.

Act II, scene iii is called “Protest (1908).” This reflects an event during which the people met to discuss the Black Act, which the British refused to repeal after promising to do so. They resolved to allow themselves to be jailed and to burn their registration cards in protest of this act. On a designated day and at a designated site, Gandhi conducted a prayer meeting before the burning of the registration cards. All the cards were tossed into a cauldron and set ablaze as the people applauded this act of protest. The Satyagraha movement now had its baptism of fire.

The opening music starts with a slow repetitious rocking figure in the violas and cellos in A minor (Ex. #6a).

Gandhi begins to pray, chanting on one pitch, “Let a man feel hatred for no being, let him be friendly, compassionate; done with thoughts of ‘I’ and ‘mine’….” (Ex. #6b). The chorus begins a lively homophonic chant in 7/8 time (Ex. #6c).

A marcato arpeggio bass line, also in 7/8 time, descends from F major, through E minor, D minor, to C major and back up through D major, E major to F—similar to the opening chaconne chord progression in Ex. #1a (Ex. #6d).

The chorus chants over this chord sequence, alternating between the women and men (Ex. #6e, 6f). These various motifs (6c, 6d, 6e, 6f) alternate throughout the remainder of the scene, concluding with a powerful unison peroration over a rising and falling chromatic scale line in the accompaniment, before returning to the A minor figure (Ex. #6a) which opened the scene.

Act III is in one scene and is entitled “New Castle March (1910).” This is set on the same mythological battlefield as the opening scene. Historically, the purpose of this march was for the miners to strike in protest of the South African government’s discriminatory immigration and lax laws. If the marchers were confronted, they were not to resist, and if arrested, they were to flood the jails, creating havoc for the government. If they were not challenged, they would take the strikers to Tolstoy Farm and prolong the strike until the government gave in, which they did after five weeks, repealing the Black Act and the tax laws.

After an opening choral chant, Kasturbai and Mrs. Naidoo sing in parallel fifth intervals under a repeated string figure in 12/4 and 10/8 meter (Ex. #7a).

The six principals then chant in block-chordal harmony, alternating from F minor to E major (Ex. #7b). Rising and falling instrumental Phrygian-like interludes separate the vocal ensembles (Ex. #7c).

In Gandhi’s final aria, with the silent Martin Luther King Jr. looking down (from the future, so to speak) he declares, “I came into being age after age and take a visible shape and move a man with men for the protection of good, thrusting the evil back and setting virtue on her seat again.” He sings an ascending Phrygian scale (Ex. #7d), repeated 30 times over a simple progression of undulating string figures (hinting back to Ex. #2c)—ending the opera with an appropriate austere conclusion for a simple yet profoundly haunting figure.